Museology or museum studies is the study of museums. It explores the history of museums and their role in society, as well as the activities they engage in, including curating, preservation, public programming, and education.
Terminology
The words that are used to describe the study of museums vary depending on language and geography. For example, while “museology†is becoming more prevalent in English, it is most commonly used to refer to the study of museums in French (muséologie), Spanish (museologÃa), German (Museologie), Italian (museologia), and Portuguese (museologia) â€" while English speakers more often use the term “museum studies†to refer to that same field of study. When referring to the day-to-day operations of museums, other European languages typically use derivatives of the Latin “museographia†(French: muséographie, Spanish: museografÃa, German: Museographie, Italian: museografia, Portuguese: museografia), while English speakers typically use the term “museum practice†or “operational museologyâ€
Development of the Field
The development of museology in Europe coincided with the emergence of early collectors and cabinets of curiosity in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries. In particular, during The Age of Enlightenment anthropologists, naturalists, and hobbyist collectors encouraged the growth of public museums that displayed natural history and ethnographic objects and art in North America and Europe. In the 18th and 19th centuries, European powers’ colonization of overseas lands was accompanied by the development of the disciplines of natural history and ethnography, and the rise of private and institutional collection building. In many cases museums became the holding places for collections that were acquired through colonial conquests, which positioned museums as key institutions in Western European colonial projects.
In the 19th century, European museology was focused on framing museums as institutions that would educate and “civilize†the general public. Museums typically served nationalist interests, and their primary purpose was often to celebrate the state, country, or colonial power. Though World’s Fairs, such as The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London or the Chicago World’s Fair, were temporary, they were some of the first examples of large-scale exhibition spaces dedicated to nationalist agendas; both Britain and America wanted to assert themselves as international leaders in science and industry.
Museums Association, the first professional membership organization for those working in the museum field, was established in London in 1889. In 1901, they developed Museums Journal, the first publication devoted entirely to the theory and practice of museums, and soon after other magazines appeared, like Museumskunde in Germany (1905) and the American Association of Museum’s Museum Work in the United States (1919). With the creation of the International Council of Museums (ICOM) in 1946, the study of museums gained increasing momentum and exposure, though at the time most of the scholarly focus was on operational museology, or museum practice.Â
Beginning in the 1950s, new forms of museology were emerging as a way to revitalize the educational role of museums. One attempt to re-envision museums’ role was the concept of Ecomuseums, first proposed publicly at ICOM’s 9th International Conference in France (1971). Ecomuseums proliferated in Europe â€" and still exist around the world today â€" challenging traditional museums and dominant museum narratives, with an explicit focus on community control and the development of both heritage and sustainability. In 1988, Robert Lumley’s book The Museum Time Machine “expressed the growing disquiet about traditional museological presuppositions and operationsâ€. The following year, Peter Vergo published his critically acclaimed edited collection The New Museology (1989/1997), a work that aimed to challenge the traditional or “old†field of museology, and was named one of the Paperbacks of the Year by The Sunday Times in Britain. Scholars who are engaged in various “new†museological practices sometimes disagree about when this trend “officially†began, what exactly it encompasses, and whether or not it is an ongoing field of study. However, the common thread of New Museology is that it has always involved some form of “radical reassessment of the roles of museums within societyâ€.
Critical theorists like Michel Foucault, Walter Benjamin, and Benedict Anderson also had a profound influence on late 20th and early 21st century museology. As other disciplines began to be critically reassessed â€" often adding the term “critical†to their new titles (i.e. critical race theory) â€" a discourse of critical museology also emerged, intensifying around the turn of the 21st century. It arose from a similar critical discourse as New Museology and shares many of its features â€" so much so that many scholars disagree about the extent to which you can distinguish one from the other. In other words, while some scholars say that New Museology was a watershed moment in the late 20th century and critical museology is a related but separate movement in the early 21st century, others argue that New Museology is an ongoing field of study that has many manifestations and names, one of which is critical museology
The latest movements in museology tend to focus on museums being interdisciplinary, multi-vocal, accessible, and open to criticism. While these critical discourses dominate contemporary museology, there are many different kinds of museums that exist today, some of which are engaged in new and innovative practices, and others that are more traditional and less critical.
Operational Museology
Operational museology refers to the day-to-day operations of a museum, including its organizational and regulatory structures, institutional policies and protocols (procedural, ethical, etc.), collections management (including conservation and restoration), and its exhibitions and programs. While there has been much scholarship around operational museology over the last 30 years, some scholars argue that it has lacked sustained analysis.
Critical Museology
a. Overview of the Field
Critical museology is emerging as a key discourse in contemporary museology. It is a broad field of study that engages critically with museums, calling into question the foundation assumptions of the field. This demonstrates critical museology’s close connection to New Museology, which also challenges foundational assumptions in museology. Critical museology may also extend beyond the traditional museum to include cultural centres, heritage sites, memorials, art galleries, and so on.
b. Development of the Field
Given that museums are intrinsically linked to colonialism, imperialism, and European missionary work, they have a morally and politically problematic past. While some of the objects museums hold were purchased â€" though not always fairly and often to the exclusive benefit of the collector â€" a large proportion of museum collections were taken as spoils of war, or otherwise removed without the consent of the people or community that owned them. Museums, along with their collections â€" and collectors â€" played a key role in establishing and reiterating the dominance of colonial Europe and narratives of cultural superiority. Critical museology was developed through questioning the foundational assumptions of museum studies and museums, including their history, architecture, display, programming, and the provenance of their objects. While anthropologists and the field of anthropology were actively engaged in problematic collecting practices for two centuries, anthropologists have also been central to the emergence of critical museology in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Additionally, anthropologists have spearheaded recent methodological and pedagogical developments in critical museology including “curatorial dreamingâ€, curating labs like the Making Culture Lab at Simon Fraser University, the Curating and Public Scholarship Lab at Concordia University, and the Centre for Anthropological Research on Museums and Heritage (CARMAH) in Berlin, as well as courses like the International Field School in Critical Museology.
c. Decolonizing & Indigenizing Museums
In North America in particular, critical museology attempts to address the problematic colonial pasts of museums through the decolonization and Indigenization of museums.
Once viewed as the formal process of handing over the instruments of government, decolonizing is now recognized â€" particularly in Canada â€" as a long-term process that involves dismantling the bureaucratic, cultural, linguistic, and psychological legacies of colonial power While there is no agreed upon end-goal of decolonization, the process of decolonizing the museum is aimed at “assist[ing] communities in their efforts to address the legacies of historical unresolved grief by speaking the hard truths of colonialism and thereby creating spaces for healing and understandingâ€.
Collaboration, consultation, and repatriation are key components of decolonizing museums. In Canada, collaboration and consultation were first formally suggested by the 1994 Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples, and are now seen by many museums as being an essential practice for any institution that holds collections belonging to Indigenous peoples. In North America, and around the world, some of the objects in those collections â€" particularly sacred objects or human remains â€" have been repatriated or returned to their communities of origin. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) (NAGPRA) formalized the process of repatriating Indigenous cultural objects in the United States. While Canada does not have a formal policy around repatriation, many museums have their own internal policies and many objects have been returned to Indigenous communities that way. Though repatriation policies are typically well intended, the process has often been complicated by institutional, community, and government politics, and have had varying degrees of success.
A newer concept, the Indigenization of museums, moves away from focusing exclusively on collaborative methods and towards employing Indigenous people to work in positions of power within museums as a means of opening up the museum to sustained Indigenous influences, and restructuring the museum to reflect Indigenous approaches to knowledge sharing. Examples of indigenizing museum practice include the Art Gallery of Ontario’s recent appointing of Wanda Nanibush as the Curator of Canadian and Indigenous Art, Wood Land School’s takeover of the SBC Gallery of Contemporary Art in Montreal and the creation of the Reciprocal Research Network, which is an interactive online resource co-developed by the Musqueam Indian Band, the Sto:lo Nation Tribal Council, the U’mista Cultural Centre, and the Museum of Anthropology at UBC, to facilitate collaborative research and knowledge exchange between communities, scholars, and cultural institutions in Canada and internationally.
While there is no linear trajectory of decolonizing/Indigenizing work in museums, major milestones in Canada include the Indians of Canada Pavilion at Expo 67’; The Lubicon Cree’s boycott of the The Spirit Sings, a Shell sponsored exhibition at the Glenbow Museum in 1988, and the resulting Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples in 1994; and The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada’s 2015 final report, with Calls to Action that specifically address museums and archives.
New Methodologies
a. Museum Interventions
Interventions in museums were first employed by artists like Marcel Duchamp, who were looking to challenge both established elite art traditions and the expectations of museum visitors. By the late 20th century, interventions had become a methodology used not only by artists, but also by other groups â€" including activists, museum visitors, and even museums themselves â€" as a way to democratize exhibitions, challenge dominant narratives, problematize the provenance of museum objects, and so on.
i. Artist Interventions
A central aspect of Institutional Critique, some artist’s interventions have been co-organized or commissioned by museums themselves â€" like Fred Wilson’s Mining the Museum (1992) at the Maryland Historical Society or Michael Nicholl Yahgulanaas’ Meddling in the Museum (2007) at UBC’s Museum of Anthropology â€" while others have been done without explicit permission, like Andrea Fraser’s Museum Highlights (1989) at the Philadelphia Museum of Art.
One of the best known artist interventions in a museum is James Luna’s Artifact Piece, which was first performed at the San Diego Museum of Man in 1987, and then again at The Decade Show in New York in 1990. Luna, a Luiseño artist, lay almost naked in a display case filled with artifacts in order to challenge representations of Indigenous peoples in museums and the narratives that accompanied those representations, which suggested that Indigenous people and cultures were dead. The objects in the case included Luna's favorite books and music, his divorce papers, his university degree, photos, and other mementos, alongside labels describing the scars on his body and how he had acquired them. The work was critically acclaimed for its challenge of conventional narratives of Indigeneity and Indigenous experience. A few years later, two artists â€" Guillermo Gómez-Peña and Coco Fusco â€" developed a traveling performance art piece called The Couple in the Cage: Two Amerindiens Visit the West that reflected on the treatment and representation of Indigenous peoples in colonial contexts, and was performed in many different spaces, including Covent Gardens, the Walker Art Center, the National Museum of Natural History, the Australia Museum, and the Field Museum.
ii. Activist Interventions
While there is overlap between artist and activist interventions, specific activist groups such as the Guerrilla Girls have long been creating exhibitions and public advertisements â€" through the use of billboards, stickers, posters, and projections â€" to critique power dynamics related to sexism, racism, and class privilege in museums.
There is also a tradition of activist interventions being used as responses to the censorship of exhibited artworks. In 1989, after the Corcoran Gallery of Art cancelled The Perfect Moment, an exhibition of Robert Mapplethorpe’s explicit photography, protesters projected Mapplethorpe’s photos on the exterior of the museum. Similar protests occurred when David Wojnarowicz’s film A Fire in My Belly was removed from the Hide/Seek: Difference and Desire in American Portraiture exhibit at the National Portrait Gallery in 2010.
iii. Museum Hack
Museum interventions have also become increasingly popular through companies such as Museum Hack, which offers unconventional tours of large museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art or the American Museum of Natural History. These tours depart from traditional methods of museum interpretation by using humor and technology to appeal to younger generations or non-typical museum audiences. Museum Hack functions with permission from the institutions in which they work, rather than providing unsolicited tours.
iv. Internal Institutional Interventions
While most interventions are directed at museums from outside sources, museums also engage interventions as a way of performing self-critique. For example, in 2015 MoMA mounted a meta-intervention exhibit called Messing with MoMA: Critical Interventions at the Museum of Modern Art 1939-Now .
b. Curatorial Dreaming
Curatorial Dreaming was originally developed as a challenge to museum critics, who are typically not expected to provide practical solutions to the issues they identify in the exhibits they critique, to develop their own imagined exhibitions. It is intended as “an alternative mode of critical, intellectual practice â€" a form of ‘theorizing in the concrete’â€.
c. Curating Workshops, Courses & Labs
Over the last two decades there has been a proliferation of curating workshops, courses, and labs that engage with New Museology and critical museology in museum spaces, in universities, and elsewhere. In Germany, the Centre for Anthropological Research on Museums and Heritage is engaging with the social, cultural, and political issues facing contemporary museums. In Canada, two of the most innovative curating labs are the Making Culture Lab at Simon Fraser University in Vancouver and the Curating and Public Scholarship Lab at Concordia University in Montreal, which recently offered its inaugural International Field School in Critical Museology in May 2017.
See also
-
- Museum
- Museum Education
- Conservation-Restoration of Cultural Heritage
- Museum Anthropology
- Natural History (Museums)
- World’s Fair
References
Bibliography
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External links
- Calls to Action â€" Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada
- Centre for Anthropological Research on Museums and Heritage
- Curatorial Dreaming
- Curating and Public Scholarship Lab
- Guerrilla Girls
- International Council of Museums
- Making Culture Lab
- Museum Hack
- Task Force Report on Museums and First Peoples
- Truth and Reconciliation Commission
- TRC - 94 Calls to Action